文化态度

文化之间的差别不仅在于成就的不同，还在于促使它们取得这些成就的态度。这些态度同经济成就的相关程度远远高于一些人大肆吹捧的“客观条件”（如初始财富或自然资源）。尽管日本自然资源极度匮乏，但该国经济依然实现了蓬勃发展。尽管很多第三世界国家土地丰沃、矿产丰富、水电潜力巨大，但其经济发展仍旧举步维艰。阿根廷坐拥世界上最适宜种植小麦的土地，该国却一度依赖进口小麦。后来，在其他文化的移民群体的努力之下，阿根廷才得以跻身全球小麦出口大国之列。

其他影响经济成果的文化态度还包括对教育、商业、劳动的态度，尤其是对所谓“卑微”劳动的态度。

教育

即便不同群体的文化迥然不同，但人们普遍都对教育颇为重视。但这种“普遍”颇具欺骗性，因为它掩盖了不同文化之间的巨大差异，即人们愿为哪类教育牺牲多长时间、花费多大精力以及放弃多少乐趣。在很多第三世界国家，人们往往会忽视社会急需的科学技能、技术技能、组织技能和创业技能，转而学习相对容易的学科。这些国家当中，属于不同文化的少数民族（如斯里兰卡的泰米尔人、马来西亚的华人）攻读数学、科学、工程或医学专业的学生比例不仅远远高于族群所占人口比例，甚至占到了绝大多数。

拉丁美洲也存在着类似的模式。20世纪中期的一项研究显示，就读于圣保罗大学的学生当中，非巴西裔学生更多地集中于学习和研究工程、经济学及类似的“现代”学科，而巴西裔家庭背景的学生则多集中在法律和医学等较为传统的领域。[70]同样，在智利大学，德裔或意大利裔学生在物理学科的表现颇为突出。[71]在拉丁美洲很多地区，技术和科学行业曾经长期受到轻视。[72]其结果是，移民和外国人成了推动这一地区工业化进程的主导力量。

农业科学同样容易受到忽视，甚至在以农业为主的第三世界国家也同样如此。例如，尼日利亚曾有40%以上的高级农业研究岗位出现了空缺。[73]在塞内加尔独立了近20年后的1979年，该国仍然没有任何大学开设农业课程，而就读于达喀尔大学的文科学生达到了数千人。[74]

在马来西亚，马来学生也趋向集中于文科领域，[75]他们当中的很多人在毕业之后只能进入政府工作，[76]因为他们并不具备任何经济技能。这种情况也并不仅仅存在于马来西亚。斐济的一位内阁成员曾坦率地宣称，该国教育系统培养出来的斐济学生的“唯一用途”就是“进政府机构里面混日子”。[77]在印度，3/4的大学生在毕业后进入了政府机构工作。[78]而一位研究非洲的权威人士将非洲教育称为“出产毕业生官僚的机器”。[79]尽管印度尼西亚小说家阿南达·杜尔曾经警告“我们必须摆脱要做政府职员的愚蠢念头”，该国青年仍对投身官僚职业颇为热衷。[80]在欠发达国家，政府部门仍是很多人就业的首要目标，同时它也是导致群体间冲突的一大主要来源。[81]

接受过正规教育者常常会产生这样一种幻觉，那就是自己理应得到回报，也无须从事很多工种——对于极少接受正规教育或正规教育历史较短的民族而言，这种态度更为明显。例如在印度，一个人哪怕只是接受过最为基础的教育，也会不再情愿涉足体力劳动。据估计，在20世纪60年代，印度生活着超过百万的“受过良好教育的失业者”，他们“在没有带薪岗位的情况下很好地维持着生活，主要是依靠家人的接济和支持”。[82]这种社会现象不只存在于印度。其他第三世界国家也存在着类似情况。

这些态度不仅会对在岗人士产生影响，也同样会对无业人士产生影响。甚至连工程师在内的受过教育的人士也越来越青睐案头工作，在“可能需要接触机器的时候变得畏首畏尾”。[83]简而言之，教育能够让人产生期望心理和厌恶情绪，从而导致个人工效的降低；与此同时，教育可能会（也可能不会）赋予人们技能和学科知识，从而导致个人工效的提升。教育的类型、受教育者的个人特质以及社会自身的文化价值观共同决定了提供更多教育是否能够以及在多大程度上能够产生净效益。一味盲目地将更多人推入学校接受教育未必有利于促进经济发展，甚至还可能会影响政治稳定。如果一个社会无法满足权利意识强烈者的诉求，且也缺乏必要的技能或勤奋去创造国民财富，从而满足其期望，那么这个社会则有可能陷入无法治理的境地。在西班牙的巴斯克人和加拿大的法裔群体当中，软性学科知识分子（尤其是教授和学校教师）在煽动内乱和分裂主义方面起到了推波助澜的作用。[84]这也表明了非技能类教育还存在着多种引发政治不稳定的危险。

不难理解，对于几代人都处于殖民统治之下的第三世界国家民众，西装革履、坐在办公桌后翻阅文件的殖民官僚形象已经在他们的脑海里根深蒂固，因此，他们一有机会便会加以效仿。但是，这些官僚背后的帝国主义国家所拥有的财富和权力并不仅仅是坐在办公桌后翻阅文件便能够创造出来的。真正创造财富和权力的是万里之外的科学、技术、组织、学科知识和创业精神——殖民地民众无法看到这些基础性的因素，也无意模仿它们。

无论是在欠发达国家，还是在工业化国家，社会中的劣势群体普遍青睐内容简单的自我吹捧课程，如新西兰的毛利人研究、新加坡的马来人研究以及美国的各类族群研究。有人声称，此类课程可以鼓舞学生，有助于提高他们其他科目的学业成绩，但这种说法完全没有事实依据。显而易见，无论是民族研究，还是其他学科的简易课程，都对劣势群体的学生颇具吸引力。

这样的模式在很多国家都普遍存在。例如，在印度，贱民种姓的大学生大多学习难度较低、不受重视且报酬较少的学科。[85]与之类似，在苏联时代，略多于半数的中亚学生都将教育学科当作自己的专业。[86]与之类似，以色列的中东和北非犹太人群体，[87]以及美国的西班牙裔群体也同样倾向于在挑战更小的高校就读，攻读难度更小的学科。[88]此外，相较于英国新教徒而言，北爱尔兰的爱尔兰天主教徒对科学技术并无太大兴趣。[89]

而他们的后代有了更充分的准备、更充足的信心之后，则可能会选择难度更高的学科领域。在美国，父母受过大学教育的黑人大学生、拉美裔大学生和印第安裔大学生修读数学和科学的人数比例远高于族群其他成员，并且这一水平同其他美国大学生无太大区别。[90]

职业

不仅对待教育的态度如此，不同文化对待工商业的态度也同样千差万别。例如，几个世纪以来，西班牙和拉丁美洲的拉丁裔精英普遍轻视工商业。[91]葡萄牙殖民帝国也存在类似的情况。[92]即便是拥有巨额财富的精英群体也往往倾向于通过土地持有获得财富，而非通过工商业获得财富。其结果便是，在拉丁美洲大部分地区，各国工商领袖当中有相当大的一部分（甚至数量绝对占优）人士都是非西班牙裔、非葡萄牙裔移民及其后代。20世纪的一些研究表明，墨西哥40%的商业领袖的祖父为外国人。入选阿根廷名人录的声望卓著的企业家中，有46%生于国外，其他很多人则是移民后代。在巴西，大多数工业企业家或为移民，或为移民子女。在智利首都圣地亚哥，大型工业企业的掌舵人约有3/4为移民或移民子女。即便是在哥伦比亚和秘鲁这些移民相对较少的国家，移民及其子女在工业企业家当中也占据了很大的比例。[93]

西葡社会的较高阶层不仅对工商行业嗤之以鼻，他们对较低阶层的体力劳动和艰苦工作也同样颇为厌恶。这种态度并非只是懒惰，它还反映了一篇描述17世纪西班牙的文章所总结的“以懒为荣的幼稚”以及对体力行当“社会耻辱烙印”的厌恶之情。[94]几个世纪后，拉丁美洲的西班牙和葡萄牙分支社会中也同样存在类似的态度，巴西贵族甚至对脑力工作也颇为不屑。[95]前往巴拉圭定居的日本农业移民勤于耕种，令当地人颇为困惑。[96]洪都拉斯的农民则抱怨同德裔农民进行竞争很不公平，因为后者工作太过勤奋。[97]由于开垦荒地工作辛苦、条件恶劣，巴西、智利、阿根廷和巴拉圭政府甚至曾专门招募非伊比利亚移民前往这些国家从事这一工作。[98]

这里关注的并不是伊比利亚文化有着怎样的“问题”，而是少数几个西北欧国家及其海外分支（如美国和澳大利亚），以及借鉴、发展西方技术的亚洲国家（日本是其中的杰出代表）有着极高的生产率水平。从国际角度来看，这些繁荣的国家是例外情况，而不是普遍情形。其人均产出水平远远高于其他国家。[99]在这几国的近代历史上，适宜的因素为什么又怎样恰到好处地结合在一起？这是一个尚未得到解答的主要问题。无论是小心翼翼、彬彬有礼地遮掩这些差异，还是坚持文化相对主义观点将其置之一旁，似乎都无法为我们揭示任何答案。在拉丁文化和葡萄牙文化乃至第三世界大部分地区的文化当中，商贸活动对受教育阶层远远不像政府工作或专业工作那样具有吸引力。[100]

这并不是一个抽象的“能力”问题，甚至也不是一个具体的技能问题，同样也绝非简单的经济活动参与意愿的问题。这些活动都有其自身的先决条件，不同的文化满足这些先决条件的程度各有不同。显然，如果社会文化对契约义务颇为抵触，[101]或“将真理视同儿戏”，[102]或对地位差别过度敏感导致职场合作难以进行，[103]或缺乏主动性和责任感，[104]或对精确程度、因果关系无甚概念，[105]那么，这些社会也就很少能够满足或无法很好地满足参与经济活动的先决条件。

对于很多人甚至大多数人而言，现代技术的核心方法——科学抽象是一个颇为陌生的过程。一些国家的智力测试人员注意到了这样一种现象，那就是对于某些文化背景的人来说，认真对待抽象问题颇为困难。[106]在文化取向迥然不同的情况下，我们甚至很难将先天“能力”的问题摆上桌面进行探讨。即便是想通过一场赛跑来测试跑步速度，首先也需要人们在起跑时间和奔跑方向方面达成一致。

同样，不同群体、不同社会对“卑微”工作的厌恶也大为不同。通常而言，工业化国家会引入外籍劳工承担这些“卑微”的工作，但如今的日本则是个例外——在这里，人们并不排斥此类工作，也不会像其他地方的人们那样以此为耻。[107]相比之下，很多斯里兰卡人仍然对任何形式的体力劳动都极端厌恶，即使安排他们完成一些简单的经济任务也会颇为困难。[108]

价值观念与现代工业经济要求更为契合的个人或群体可能存在于同一社会内部，也可能来自外部，但问题在于他们是否能够产生持续的影响。如果自以为是的本土精英阶层影响力巨大，足以吸纳充满活力的新兴力量（例如，只有在企业家放弃商业，转而持有土地的情况下才接受他们），则有可能会扼杀这些推动社会整体进步的动态力量。俄国的德米多夫家族便是一个典型的例子。这一家族在18世纪开创了俄国钢铁工业，其产量长期占据着国内行业的半壁江山，在整个欧洲也处于领先地位。但在后来，随着德米多夫家族被沙皇封为贵族，这一家族退出工商业，成为地主贵族。[109]在沙皇治下的俄国或帝制时代的中国，崛起的资本家们普遍期望跻身地主绅士或政府官员之列。[110]西班牙和拉丁美洲的历史上也出现了类似的情况。18世纪的法国同样如此，在这个国家，一个家族在商业方面的成功很少能够延续三代，因为人们在拥有了财富之后，往往会受封贵族或者得到公职。[111]一个国家如果对商人推行了掠夺性或腐败性的政策或实施了此类行为，将其视为猎物而非资产，那么此类举措往往会加速企业家的角色转变。[112]

在本土居民历来缺乏创业精神的社会之中，社会的发展向来高度倚赖外国人士——阻碍或弱化本土创业精神的社会力量并不会对后者造成影响。尤其令人啼笑皆非的是，在清朝晚期和民国早期，中国现代工商业仍被欧美人主导的同时，世界其他地区为数庞大的华人企业家阶层却在不断发展，并未受到其母国社会模式的约束。过去的中国也并不是唯一一个在创业、贸易和手工业方面都严重依赖外国人的国家。在16、17世纪的西班牙，此类职业也极度依赖来自欧洲其他地区或伊斯兰世界的人士，[113]而后来拉丁美洲的西班牙分支社会也同样依赖来自欧洲其他国家、亚洲或中东的移民。[114]与之类似，奥斯曼帝国的经济活动也严重依赖国内少数民族和外国人士。[115]在东南亚和非洲部分地区的很多国家，情况也同样如此。[116]

文化“认同”

我们可将独特行为特征、独特价值观念和独特思维方式的问题同民族成员个体自觉“认同”的问题区分开来。即便是否定自身根源的人士也仍会不知不觉地展现这些根源。尽管15世纪皈信基督教的西班牙犹太改宗者大多支持反犹政策，但他们所从事的职业、所取得的成就依然同其改宗之前别无二致。生活在东南亚地区的很多华人都自视为热爱自己国家的泰国人或缅甸人，但他们依然保持着华人所特有的工作习惯和价值观念。东南亚的很多带有华人血统的人士也同样如此，但如同西班牙的犹太改宗者热衷于排挤犹太人一样，这些拥有华人血统的人士也有部分成了臭名昭著的排华者。

与之相反的是，已经脱离所属群体文化根脉的人士以及鲜有甚至并无所属群体社会经历的人士反而对其族群有着尤为强烈的“认同”，他们甚至可能会以高调、夸张的方式来表达这种认同感。事实上，一个在全世界都颇为普遍的社会现象是，人们在失去了某种文化之后，往往又会成为这一文化最为坚定的倡导者。一直以来，在欧美接受教育，思想和价值观彻底西化的非洲人一直是泛非主义的极端信奉者。最早提出“黑人性”（Negritude）概念的是生活在巴黎的加勒比移民群体，[117]而最早提出“巴基斯坦”一词的则是一群来自南亚次大陆的剑桥大学穆斯林学子。[118]对秘鲁的古印加文化最尊崇的并不是土著印第安人，而是文化互渗之下的印欧混血——梅斯蒂索人。[119]在20世纪50年代的斯里兰卡，一个曾经就读牛津大学、不懂本族语言的西化僧伽罗基督徒推动了佛教极端主义和僧伽罗沙文主义的滋生。[120]在这些国家及其他国度，被同化程度最高的族群成员不仅是文化复兴的领导者，[121]也是历史仇怨的煽动人。第二次世界大战期间，加拿大的第一代及第二代日本移民曾经饱受歧视，随后失去了人身自由。但战争结束后，他们几乎并未对此怨恨不已。而对于这些自己并未经历过的事件，第三代日裔却感同身受——对于老一辈的经历，他们常常会发出这样或那样的感叹：“他们为什么不肯说二战时在加拿大被人喊‘肮脏的日本佬’是什么感受？”[122]

相较于人为推动的复兴运动，文化认同在真正意义上的延续很少会像前者那样咄咄逼人、夸张做作。看到少数爱尔兰人说盖尔语或看到少数美国黑人讲斯瓦希里语，公众往往都会大肆追捧，而讲意第绪语的犹太人数量颇多，人们对此的反应却颇为平淡。一些群体，如宾夕法尼亚州的阿米什人及生活在加、美、墨三个国家的门诺教徒，几百年以来都保持着相同的生活方式，几乎如同封存在时间胶囊里一样，从未表现出装腔作势的姿态。

当一种文化无可挽回地走向没落之时，便会有人极力捍卫它，不仅民族问题上存在这类情形，其他问题也同样如此。在美国的南方地区，南部同盟战败之后出生的一代人曾不遗余力地美化其内战期间的未竟之志及战后影响，相关的例子包括经典电影《一个国家的诞生》，乌尔里克·B.菲利普斯所讲述的颇具学术性但又充满自我辩护意味的历史，以及对一切大肆美化的小说《飘》及其改编电影《乱世佳人》。[123]与之类似，对种族和民族的文化认同往往会在它们随风“飘”零之后呈现出其最具意识形态的形式。

过于夸张的文化“认同”已经不仅仅是一种缺陷，它还会造成更严重的社会后果，其中包括将危险的权力拱手送给各个群体的边缘极端分子，并将其同身边整个社会的文化优势隔离开来，由此也扼杀了落后群体的文化发展。尽管长远来看，文化狭隘主义或许会带来严重后果，但是，将危险的权力拱手交给极端分子则会造成更加严重的短期威胁。

当两个群体的边缘派别发生冲突时，即便双方各有90%的成员对另一群体并无敌意，其各自的反应也会因内部认同和团结程度的不同而迥然不同。在群体认同和团结达到狂热程度的时候，每一场这样的冲突都可能被视为所在群体遭受了更大的威胁；而在风平浪静的时期，双方可能会将同样的事件归咎于流氓或煽动者——这些人本身就为多数群体成员所不齿。夸大的身份认同会给相关群体和整个社会造成高昂的社会成本。

长期来看，对于在教育、收入及二者的社会影响方面都落后于人的群体而言，过分夸大的“认同”会导致尤为高昂的成本。纵观历史，对于群体、国家乃至文明而言，想要取得文化成就，就需汲取他人之长。在中世纪时期，西班牙犹太人完全照搬了伊斯兰世界的科学和数学，直到后来，他们才做出了属于自己的贡献。西方文明则吸收了中国和伊斯兰世界（包括南亚次大陆部分地区）的技术和科学，此举也为其自身在相关领域的领军地位奠定了基础。尽管日本在20世纪也曾长期生产仿冒欧美商品的伪劣廉价产品，但它最终在多个领域冠居全球——无论是从数量上，还是质量上来看，都是如此。

过分夸张的群体“认同”会使文化借鉴之举形同叛变。有人甚至敦促一些群体放弃为同时代10亿人所用、在科学和哲学等领域大量文献中所使用的语言，转而使用他们祖先的语言——这种语言只有当地才有人使用，且会者寥寥，用该语言撰写的文献也颇为稀少，甚至从未存在。在新西兰，有人甚至提出将毛利人的语言定为整个国家的官方语言。[124]马来西亚已经不再把英语作为高等教育用语，尽管英语已在马来西亚颇为普及，连主流媒体《新海峡时报》用的也是英语。

如果一国政府为族群的认同提供资金支持（在澳大利亚、英国、加拿大和美国，此举常常被冠以“多元文化主义”之名），则无异于人为地制造巴尔干化现象，而完全无视亚非多地及巴尔干半岛本土巴尔干化的惨烈历史恶果。

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[1] Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth:Race, Ethnicity, and Class in Americe (New York:Atheneum, 1981), pp.99-103

[2] Aryeh Schmuelevitz, The Jess of the Ottoman Empire in the Late Fifteenth and the Sixteenth Centuries:Administratire, Economies, Legal and Social Relations as Reflected in the Responsa (Leiden, the Netherlands:E. J. Brill, 1984), p.138；Benard Lewis, The Jews of Islam (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1984), pp.132, 133；Moses Rischin, The Promised City:Newe York's Jews, 1870-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.：Harvard Universitv Press, 1967), pp.61-68：Judith Laikin Elkin, Jess of the Latin American Republies (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1980), pp.11+-115. Howard M. Sachar, Diaspora:An Inquiry Into the Contemporary Jewish World (New York:Harper & Row, 1985), pp.250, 254, 287.

[3] Orlando Patterson, "Context and Choice in Ethnic Allegiance:A Theoretical Framework and Caribbean Case Study." Ethnicity:iheory and Experience. edited by Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan (Cambridge, Mass.：Harvard University Press, 1981), p.327.

[4] Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Derelopn ent in Southeast Asivn：The Chinese Dimension (Stanford:Hoover Institution Press, 1980). pp.30. 51：S. W. Kung. Chinese in American Life:Some Apects of Their History. Status, Problems and Contributions (Seattle:University of Washirgton Press, 1962), pp.22, 23.

[5] Victor Wolfgang van Hagen, The Germanic People in America (Norman：Oklahoma University Press, 1976). p.326；Alfred Dolge. Pianos and Thein Makers (Covina, Calif.：Covina Publishing Company 1911), pp.172, 264：Edwin M. Good, Giraffes, Black Dragons, and Other Pianos:A Technologi al History From Cristofori to the Modern Concert Grand (Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1982). p.137m；W. D. Borrie. "Australia, " The Positire Contributions by Immigrants, edited by Oscar Handlin (Paris:United Nations Educational, Seientifie and Cultural Organization, 1960), p.94.

[6] K. L Filion, Fiji's Indian Migrants:A History to the End of Indenture in 1920 (Melbourne:Oxford University Press, 1962), pp.130-133：Agehananda Bharati, The Asians in East Afrieg:Javhind and Uhurn (Chicagnc Nelson-Hall Company, 1972), pp.11, 17；J. S. Mangat, A History of the Asians in East Africa:c.1886 to 1945 (Oxford:Oford University Press 1969), pp.49, 95 Floyd and Lillian O. Dotson, The Indian Minority of Zambia, Rhodesia, and Malawi (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1968).pp.12, 28, 33.

[7] Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (New York:Amo Press, 1969), pp.195, 206, 207, 211, 213, 214, 215, 220, 222, 325, 419.

[8] Ibid.., pp.257-259：The Great Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, translated by M. Wilkinson (Leningrad:Aurora Ant Publishers, 1981), p.9.

[9] William R. Brock, Scotus Americanies:A Surey of the Sourees for Links Betseen Scotland and America in the Eighteenth Certury (Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1982), pp.119-120.

[10] Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam (Princeton:Prinoeton University Press, 1984), pp.129, 132, 133.

[11] William Chase Greene. The Achierement of Rome:A Chapter in Cirilization (New York:Cooper Square Publishers, Ine..1973), p.85.

[12] Ingeborg Fleischauer. "The Germans" Role in Tsarist Russia:A Reappraisal, " The Soriet Germans:Past and Present, edlited by Edith Rogovin Frankel (New York:St. Martin's Press, 1986), pp.17-18.

[13] P. T. Bauer, Reality and Rhetoric:Stadies in the Economics of Developmeni (Cambridge, Mass.：Harvard University Press, 1984), p.7.

[14] See Thomas Sowell, Three Black Histories, " Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, edited by Thomas Sowell and Lynn D. Collins (Washington.d D.C.：The Urban Institute, 1978), pp.7-64.

[15] The Scots of Ulster County, Ireland, who settled along hundreds of miles of Appalachia, had a different history on both sides of the Atlantic from that of the Scots from the Scottish lowlands, as the latter did also from the highland Scots. The Ulster Scots "developed habits of thought and conduct differentiating them from the Scots at home." Maldwyn Allen Jones, "ScotchIrish, "Harrard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom, et al. (Cambridge, Mass.：Harvard University Press, 1980), p.896.For social and cultural histories of these various subgroups of Scots see James G. Leyburn, The ScotchIrish (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1962)；Rory Fitzpatrick, God's Frontiersmen:The ScotsIrish Epic (London:George Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989)；Duane Meyer, The Highland Scots of North Carolina：1732-1776 (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1961)；William R. Brock, Scotus Americanus:A Surve of the Sources for Links Between Scotland and America in the Eighteenth Century (Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1982)；Gordon Donaldson, "Scots, " Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, pp908-916. See also David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed:Four British Folksays in America (New York:Oxford University Press, 1989), pp, 605-782.

[16] Yasuo Wakatsuki, "Japanese Emigration to the United States, " Perspectires in American History, 1979 (Volume XII), pp.430-434, 465-470.

[17] Raphael Patai, The Jewish Mind (New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977). pp.122-125.

[18] Geoffrey Blainey, Triumph of the Nomads:A History of Ancient Austrulia (South Melbourne:The Macmillan Co. of Australia, 1982), p, vi.

[19] See, for example, Irowokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiyi Period,translated and edited by Marius B. Jansen (Princeton:Princeton Universityd Press, 1988), Chapter II.

[20] John R. Harris, "Movements of Technology Between Britain and Europe in the Eighteenth Century, " International Technology Transfer:Europe, Japav and the USA, 1700-1914, edited by David J. Jeremy (Brookfield, Vt:Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1991), p.14.

[21] Bruno Lasker, Human Bondage in Southeast Asia (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1950), p.16.

[22] David J. Jeremy and Darwin H. Stapleton, "Transfers Between Culturally-Related Nations:The Movement of Textile and Railroad Technologies Between Britain and the United States, 1780-1840, " International Technol-ogy Transfer:Europe, Japan and the USA, 1700-1914, edited by David J.Jeremy. pp.31-48；Takeshi Yuzawa, "The Transfer of Railway Technolo-gies From Britain to Japan, With Special Reference to Locomotive Manufacture, " Ibid., pp.199-218；Tetsuro Nakaoka, "The Transfer of Cotton Manu-facturing Technology From Britain to Japan, " Ibid., pp.181-198；Gregory Clark, "Why Isn't the Whole World Developed？Lessons From Cotton Mills, " Journal of Economic History, March 1987, p.142；W. O. Henderson.The Rise of German Industrial Power：1834-1914 (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1975), p.44；Mark Jefferson, Peopling the Argentine Pampa (Port Washington, N.Y.：Kennikat Press, 1971), p.137；Winthrop R.Wright, British-Owned Railways in Argentina:Their Effect on the Growth of Economic Nationalism, 1854-1948 (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1974), pp.5, 19, 23；Neena Vreeland et al., Area handbook for Malaysia,third edition (Washington, D.C.：U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), pp.301-302；Dharma Kumar, The Cambridge Ecoromic History of India,Vol.2 (Hyderabad:Orient Longman, Ltd., 1984), pp.737-761；T. O. Lloyd.The British Empire：1558-1983 (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1984), p.239；Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire:Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York:Oxford University Press, 1981), pp.180-191, 195.

[23] Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley:University of Cali-fornia Press, 1985), p.677；Myron Weiner, "The Pursuit of Ethnic Equality Through Preferential Policies:A Comparative Public Policy Perspective, "From Independence to Statehood:Managing Ethnic Conflict in Five African and Asian States, edited by Robert B. Goldmann and A. Jeyaratnam Wilson (London:Frances Pinter, 1984), p.64；Cynthia Enloe, Police, Military and Ethnicity:Foundations of State Power (New Brunswick, N.J.：Transaction Books, 1980). pp.37, 163, 164. ture, " Ibid., pp.199-218；Tetsuro Nakaoka, "The Transfer of Cotton Manu-facturing Technology From Britain to Japan, " Ibid., pp.181-198；Gregory Clark, "Why Isn't the Whole World Developed？Lessons From Cotton Mills, " Journal of Economic History, March 1987, p.142；W. O. Henderson.The Rise of German Industrial Power：1834-1914 (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1975), p.44；Mark Jefferson, Peopling the Argentine Pampa (Port Washington, N.Y.：Kennikat Press, 1971), p.137；Winthrop R.Wright, British-Owned Railways in Argentina:Their Effect on the Growth of Economic Nationalism, 1854-1948 (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1974), pp.5, 19, 23；Neena Vreeland et al., Area handbook for Malaysia,third edition (Washington, D.C.：U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), pp.301-302；Dharma Kumar, The Cambridge Ecoromic History of India,Vol.2 (Hyderabad:Orient Longman, Ltd., 1984), pp.737-761；T. O. Lloyd.The British Empire：1558-1983 (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1984), p.239；Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire:Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York:Oxford University Press, 1981), pp.180-191, 195.23. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley:University of Cali-fornia Press, 1985), p.677；Myron Weiner, "The Pursuit of Ethnic Equality Through Preferential Policies:A Comparative Public Policy Perspective, "From Independence to Statehood:Managing Ethnic Conflict in Five African and Asian States, edited by Robert B. Goldmann and A. Jeyaratnam Wilson (London:Frances Pinter, 1984), p.64；Cynthia Enloe, Police, Military and Ethnicity:Foundations of State Power (New Brunswick, N.J.：Transaction Books, 1980). pp.37, 163, 164.

[24] See, for example, Irowokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period,translated and edited by Marius B. Jansen (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1988), Chapter II.

[25] Hattie Plum Williams, The Czar's Germans:With Particular Reference to the Volga Germans (Lincoln, Neb.：American Historical Society of Germans From Russia, 1975), p.163.

[26] W. D. Borrie, Italians and Germans in Australia (Melbourne:Australian National University, 1954), p.221；Eric N. Baklancff, "External Factors in the Economic Development of Brazil's Heartland:The Center-South.1850-1930, " The Shaping of Modern Brazil, edited by Eric N. Baklanoff (Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press, 1969), p.30；Frederick C.Luebke, "A Prelude to Conflict:The German Ethnic Group in Brazilian Society, 1890-1917, " Ethnic and Racial Studies, January 1983, p.3：Terry G. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1982), p.108；Fred C. Koch, The Volga Germans:Ia Russia and the Ameri-cas, From 1763 to the Present (University Park:Per nsylvania State Univer-sity Press, 1978), pp.214-215, 227, 230；Richard Sallet, Russian-German Settlements in the United States, translated by LaVern J. Rippley and Armand Bauer (Fargo, N.D.：North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, 1974), pp.42-62；George F. W. Young, Germans in Chile:Immigration and Colonization, 1849-1914 (Staten Island, N.Y.：The Center for Migration Studies, 1974), Chapters II, III, IV；Hans Juergen Hoyer, "Germans in Paraguay, 1881-1945, " Ph.D. dissertation, American University, 1973, pp.46, 49, 51-56.

[27] Orlando Patterson, "Context and Choice in Ethnic Allegiance:A Theoretical Framework and Caribbean Case Study, " Ethnicity:Theory and Experience,edited by Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan (Cambridge, Mass.：Har-vard University Press, 1981), p.327.

[28] Pierre L. van den Berghe, "Asian Africans Before and After Independence, "Kroniek van Afrika (The Netherlands), 1975, No.6 (New Series), p.199.

[29] Ibid., p.201.

[30] Ibid., p.200.

[31] Charles A. Price, Southern Europeans in Australia (Canberra:Australian National University, 1979), pp.140, 162, 198.

[32] See, for example, Illsoo Kim, New Urban Immigrants:The Korean Commu-nity in New York (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1981), p.258；Pyong Gap Min, Ethnic Business Enterprise:Small Business in Atlanta (New York:Center for Migration Studies, 1988), pp.33-34；Ivan Light and Edna Bonacich, Immigrant Entrepreneurs:Koreans in Los Angeles, 1965-1982 (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988), pp.318-319.

[33] Karl Stumpp, The German-Russians:Two Centuries of Pioneering (Bonn:Edition Atlantic-Forum, 1966), pp.140-141；Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (New York:Arno Press, 1969), pp.131-139, 148：I. Harmstorf, "German Settlement in South Australia Until1914, " The Australian People:An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins, edited by James Jupp (North Ryde, N.S.W.：Angus and Robertson, 1988), p.482；T. Lynn Smith, Brazil:People and Institutions (Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press, 1972), p.134.

[34] Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley:University of Cali-fornia Press, 1985), pp.169-175；Mahatir bin Mohamad, The Malay Dilemma (Kuala Lumpur:Federal Publications, 1970), passim. It may seem as though this implies acceptance of self-reported conclusions in this case but not in the case of survey research. However, much survey research inquires into things desired (becoming a doctor, owning a home, etc.) or behavior valued (hardwork, reliability, etc.) rather than the actual character-istics of one's group behavior pattern.

[35] See, for example, Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews:From the Babylon-ian Exile to the Present, 5728-1968 (New York:New American Library, 1968), p.342；John William Henderson, et al., Area Handbook for Burma (Washington, D.C.：U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), p.238.

[36] See, for example, Roy E. H. Mellor, Europe:A Geographical Surpey of the Con-tinent (New York:Columbia University Press, 1979). especially Chapter 1.

[37] P. T. Bauer, Reality and Rhetoric:Studies in the Economics of Development (Cambridge, Mass.：Harvard University Press, 1984), p.7.

[38] Kernial Singh Sandhu, Indians in Malaya:Immigration and Settlement (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1969), p.261.

[39] Cecil Clementi, The Chinese in British Guiana (The Argosy" Company Ltd., 1915), p.224.

[40] Sidney Pollard, "Labour in Great Britain, " The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. VII:The Industrial Economies:Capital, Labour, and Enter-prise, Part l:Britain, France, Germany, and Scandinavia, edited by Peter Mathias and M. M. Postan (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1978). p.157.

[41] See, for example, Ronald C. Newton, German Buenos Aires, 1900-1933：Social Change and Cultural Crisis (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1977), p.9；Gino Germani, "Mass Immigration and Modernization in Argentina, "Studies in Comparative Derelopment, Vol.2 (1966), p.167, 170；Laura Ran-dall, An Economic History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century (New York:Columbia University Press, 1978), p.116；Jean Roche, La Colonisation Allemande et Le Rio Grande do Sul (Paris:Institut des Hautes Études de L'Amérique Latine, 1959)；J. F. Normano and Antonello Gerbi. The Japan-ese in South America:An Introduction Survey With Special Reference to Peru (New York:Institute of Pacific Relations, 1943), pp.38-39；Robert Foer-ster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (New York:Arno Press, 1969). Chapters XIII, XIV, XV, XVI；Winthrop R. Wright, Eritish-Owned Railways in Argentina:Their Effect on the Growth of Economie Nationalism.1854-1948 (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1974).

[42] Roger P. Bartlett, Human Capital:The Settlement of Foreigners in Russia1762-1804 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp.132.144,158-164：John P. McKay, Pioneers for Profit:Foreiga Entrepreneurship and Russian Industrialization 1885-1913 (Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1970), pp.34, 35, 48, 144；Arcadius Kahan, "Notes on Jewish Entrepre-neurship in Tsarist Russia, " Entrepreneurship in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union, edited by Gregory Guroff and Fred V. Carstensen (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1983), pp.104-124.

[43] David Lamb, The Africans (New York:Random House, 1982), pp.214-217,295.

[44] Stephen Steinberg. The Ethnic Myth:Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (New York:Atheneum, 1981), pp.79-81.93-103；Joel Perlmann, Ethnic Differences:Schooling and Social Structure Among the Irish, Italians, Jews and Blacks in an American City 1880-1935 (New York:Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1988). p.204.

[45] "Race, Class, and Scores, " New York Times, October 24, 1982, Section 4. p.9：College Entrance Examination Board, Profiles, College-Bound Seniors, 1981 (New York:College Entrance Examination Board, 1982). pp.27.36.45,55.

[46] For a general survey of these developments, see Jason Schneider, "How the Japanese Camera Took Over, " Modern Photography, July 1984, pp.56ff.

[47] John P. McKay, Pioneers for Profit, pp.193, 257.

[48] David J. Jeremy and Darwin H. Stapleton, "Transfers Between Cultur-ally-Related Nations:The Movement of Textile and Railroad Technolo-gies Between Britain and the United States, 1780-1840, " International Technology Transfer:Europe, Japan and the USA, 1700-1914, edited by David J. Jeremy (Brookfield, Vt.：Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1991). p.35.

[49] Charles K. Hyde, "Iron and Steel Technologies Moving Between Europe and the United States Before 1914, " Ibid., pp.52-53.

[50] David J. Jeremy and Darwin H. Stapleton, "Transfers Between Culturally-Related Nations, " Ibid., p.42.

[51] Charles K. Hyde, "Iron and Steel Technologies Moving Between Europe and the United States Before 1914, " Ibid., p.54.

[52] David J. Jeremy and Darwin H. Stapleton, "Transfers Between Culturally-Related Nations, " Ibid., pp.40-41.

[53] Ibid., p.32.

[54] Irowokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period, p.7.

[55] David J. Jeremy and Darwin H. Stapleton, "Transfers Between Culturally-Related Nations." International Technology Transfer:Europe, Japan and the USA, 1700-1914, edited by David J. Jeremy (Brookfield, Vt.：Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1991), pp.32, 34, 35；John R. Harris, "Movements of Technology Between Britain and Europe in the Eighteenth Century, " Ibid., pp.12-13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23.

[56] Tetsuro Nakaoka, The Transfer of Cotton Manufacturing Technology From Britain to Japan, " Ibid., p.183.

[57] Ibid., p.188.

[58] Ibid., p.193.

[59] Ibid., p.194.

[60] Takeshi Yuzawa, "The Transfer of Railway Technologies From Britain to Japan, With Special Reference to Locomotive Manufacture, " Ibid., pp.205,206.

[61] Ibid., p.212.

[62] Simon Ville, "Shipping Industry Technologies, " Ibid., p.80.

[63] Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime:The History of Civilization (New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974), pp.196, 218；Antony C. Sutton,Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945 (Stan-ford:Hoover Institution Press, 1971), pp.11, 13.

[64] David J. Jeremy, "Introduction:Some of the Larger Issues Posed by Tech-nology Transfer, " International Technology Transfer:Europe, Japan and the USA, 1700-1914, edited by David J. Jeremy (Brookfield, Vt.：Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1991), p.1.

[65] Tetsuro Nakaoka, "The Transfer of Cotton Manufacturing Technology From Britain to Japan, " Ibid., p.184.

[66] John R. Harris, "Movements of Technology Between Britain and Europe in the Eighteenth Century, " Ibid., p.10.

[67] W. Montgomery Watt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (Edin-burgh:Edinburgh University Press, 1972), pp.22-26, 30-43, 58-71.

[68] Simon Ville, "Shipping Industry Technologies, " In:ernational Technology Transfer:Europe, Japan and the USA, 1700-191-4, edited by David J.Jeremy (Brookfield, Vt.：Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1991), pp.80,90.

[69] Winthrop R. Wright, British-Owned Railways in Argentina, pp.267-268.

[70] Seymour Martin Lipset, "Values, Education, and Ertrepreneurship, " Elites in Latin America, edited by Seymour Martin Lipset and Aldo Solari (New York:Oxford University Press, 1967), p.25.

[71] Seymour Martin Lipset, Revolution and Counter-revolution:Change and Persistence in Social Structures, revised edition (Garden City, N.Y.：Anchor Books, 1970), pp.109-110.

[72] Seymour Martin Lipset, "Values, Education, and Ertrepreneurship, " Elites in Latin America, edited by Seymour Martin Lipset and Aldo Solari. pp.20-21.

[73] Carl K. Fisher, "Facing Up to Africa's Food Crisis." Foreign Affairs. Fall1982, p.166.

[74] Ibid., p.170.

[75] Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia, p.57. See also Donald R. Snodgrass, Inequality and Economic Development in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur:Oxford University Press, 1980), pp.249-250.

[76] Gordon P. Means, Malaysian Politics (New York:New York University Press, 1970), p.20；see also Been-lan Wang, "Government Intervention in Ethnic Stratification:Effects on the Distribution of Students Among Fields of Study, " Comparative Education Review. Vol.21 (1977), p.123；Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia.2nd edition (Kuala Lumpur:Oxford University Press, 1980), p.227.

[77] Wolfgang Kasper, et al., Fiji:Opportunity From Adversity？ (St. Leonards,Australia:Centre for Independent Studies, 1988). p.129.

[78] Derek T. Healey, "Development Policy:New Thinking About an Interpreta-tion, " Journal of Economic Literature, September 1972, p.771.

[79] Ibid., p.771n.

[80] James Fallows, "Indonesia:An Effort to Hold Together, " The Atlantic. June1982, p.22.

[81] Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, p.114.

[82] Gunnar Myrdal. Asian Drama:An Inquiry Into the Poverty of Nations (New)York:Vintage Books, 1972), p.295.

[83] Ibid., p.296.

[84] Maurice Pinard and Richard Hamilton, "The Class Base of the Quebecd Independence Movement:Conjectures and Evidence, " Ethnic and Racial Studies, January 1984, pp.19-54.

[85] Marc Galanter, Competing Equalities:Law and the Backward Classes in India (Delhi:Oxford University Press, 1984), p.63.

[86] Alec Nove and J. A. Newth, The Soviet Middle East:A Communist Model for Development (New York:Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), p.80.

[87] Sammy Smooha and Yochanan Peres, "The Dynamics of Ethnic Inequali-ties:The Case of Israel, " Studies of Israeli Society, Vol. I:Migration, Ethnic-ity and Community, edited by Ernest Krausz (New Brunswick, N.J.：Trans-action Books, 1980), p.173.

[88] George H. Brown, Nan L. Rosen, and Susan T. Hill, The Condition of Edu-cation for Hispanic Americans (Washington, D.C.：National Center for Edu-cational Statistics, 1980), p.119. See also Manuel P. Servin, "The Post-World War II Mexican-American, 1925-1965：A Non-Achieving Minority, " The Mexican-Americans:An Awakening Minority, edited by Manuel P. Servin (Beverly Hills:Glencoe Press, 1970), p.156；Ellwyn R.Stoddard, Mexican Americans (New York:Random House, 1973), pp.133-134.

[89] Paul Compton, The Conflict in Northern Ireland:Demographic and Eco-nomic Considerations, " Economic Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict:Interna-tional Perspectives, edited by S. W. R. de A. Samarasinghe and Reed Cough-d lan (London:Pinter Publishers, 1991), p.42.

[90] Sue E. Berryman, Who Will Do Science:Trends, and Their Causes, in Minority and Female Representation Among Holders of Advanced Degrees in Science and Mathematics (New York:The Rockefeller Foundation, 1983), p.10.

[91] Seymour Martin Lipset, Revolution and Counter-revolution, pp.83-84.

[92] Ibid.；C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire：1415-1825 (New York:Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), p.88；Carl Degler, Neither Black Nor White:Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York:Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1971), p.245.

[93] Seymour Martin Lipset, "Values, Education, and Entrepreneurship, " Elites in Latin America, edited by Seymour Martin Lipset and Aldo Solari, pp.20-21.

[94] Jaime Vicens Vives, "The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century, "The Economic Decline of Empires, edited by Carlo M. Cipolla (London:Methuen & Co., 1970), p.127.

[95] William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West:A History of the Human Commu-nity (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1991), p.667.

[96] Norman R. Stewart, Japanese Colonization in Eastern Paraguay (Washing-ton, D.C.：National Academy of Sciences, 1967), p.153.

[97] Harry Leonard Sawatsky, They Sought a Country:Mennonite Colonization in Mexico (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1971), p.365.

[98] Frederick C. Luebke, Germans in the New World:Essays in the History of Immigration (Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1990), pp.94, 96；Carl Solberg, Immigration and Nationalism:Argentina and Chile, 1890-1914 (Austin:University of Texas Press, 1970), Chapter 1；George F. W. Young, "Bernardo Philippi, Initiator of German Colonization in Chile, " Hispanic American Historical Review, August 1971, p.490；Fred C. Koch, The Volga Germans:In Russia and the Americas, From 1763 to the Present (University Park:Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), pp.231-233.

[99] See, for example, Herbert Stein and Murray Foss, An Illustrated Guide to the American Economy (Washington, D.C.：The American Enterprise Institute, 1992), pp.12-13.

[100] Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, p.114.

[101] William McGowan, And Only Man Is Vile:The Tragedy of Sri Lanka (New York:Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1992), p.13. See also pp.113, 287.

[102] Ibid., p.341.

[103] Ibid., p.288.

[104] See, for example, Ibid., pp.291-292.

[105] See Ibid., p.292.

[106] Thomas Sowell, "Race and I.Q. Reconsidered, " Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, edited by Thomas Sowell and Lynn D. Collins.p.219.

[107] Edwin R. Reubens, "Low-level Work in Japan Without Foreign Workers."International Migration Review, Winter 1981, pp.749-757.

[108] See, for example, William McGowan, And Only Man Is Vile, pp.94, 288.

[109] See Hugh D. Hudson, Jr., The Rise of the Demidor Family and the Russian Iron Industry in the Eighteenth Century (Newtonville, Mass.：Oriental Re-search Partners, 1986), passim, especially pp.44, 48, 117, 119-120.

[110] Ibid., pp.119-120. Ping-ti Ho, "Economic Decline and Institutional Fac-tors in the Decline of the Chinese Empire, " The Economic Decline of Empires, edited by Carlo M. Cipolla, p.275；William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West:A History of the Human Community (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1991), p.520.

[111] Arthur Hertzberg, The French Enlightenment and the Jews:The Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism (New York:Columbia University Press, 1990), p.80：William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West, p.679.

[112] Charles O. Hucker, China's Imperial Past (Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1975), Chapter 11, 12, passim；Jaime Vicens. Vives, "The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century, " The Economic Decline of Empires.edited by Carlo M. Cipolla, pp.121.126-128.

[113] Jaime Vicens Vives, "The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century, "The Economic Decline of Empires, edited by Carlo M. Cipolla, pp.130-136,143, 190.

[114] See Chapter 2 of this book.

[115] Bernard Lewis, "Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire, "The Economic Decline of Empires, edited by Ca-lo M. Cipolla, p.226：Robert Mantran, "Foreign Merchants and the Mincrities in Istanbul during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries." Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire:The Functioning of a Plural Society, edited by Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, Vol. I:The Central Lands (New York:Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., 1982), pp.127-137；Charles Issawi, "The Transformation of the Economic Position of the Millets in the Nineteenth Century, " Ibid., pp.261-285.

[116] Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia, pp.30-31, 34, 36；Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya, Indians in Africa:A Socio-Eco-nomic Study (Caleutta:Bookland Private Ltd., 1970), pp.262-263, 394.

[117] O. R. Dathorne, Jr., The Black Mind:The History of African Literature (Min-neapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1974), p.309；see also Edward A.Jones, Voices of Negritude (Valley Forge, Pa.：Judson Press, 1971), p.14.

[118] Geoffrey Moorhouse, India Britannica (New York:Harper & Row, 1983), p.243.

[119] J. F. Normano and Antonello Gerbi, The Japanese in South America:An Introduction Survey With Special Reference to Peru (New York:Institute of Pacific Relations, 1943). p.62.

[120] Robert N. Kearney, Communalism and Language in the Politics of Ceylon (Durham:Duke University Press, 1967), pp.80-81.

[121] Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, p.72； "Both Islam and Christianity are vital and growing religions in Africa today. In the worldwide gatherings of both faiths, African representatives are an increasingly impor-tant section. At the same time the observance of traditional religious rituals is probably decreasing, although some young university-educated people are advocating a deliberate return to traditional culture, including its religious aspects. It is doubtful whether the majority of Africans will ever take this seriously." Jocelyn Murray, ed., Cultural Atlas of Africa (New York:Facts on File Publications, 1981), p.35. See also Ashis Nandy, "The Making and Unmaking of Political Cultures in India, " Daedelus, Winter 1973, pp.127-128.

[122] Ken Adachi, The Enemy That Never Was:A History of the Japanese Canadi-ans (Toronto:McClelland & Stewart Ltd., 1976), p.362.

[123] This was pointed out long ago by Marcus Lee Hansen in The Problem of the Third Generation Immigrant (Rock Island, Il.：Augustana Historical Soci-ety, 1938), pp.9-10.

[124] "Racism Not Changed' Says Professor, " The Press (Christchurch, New Zealand), September 23, 1988, p.6.